The FCLE may quote a founder's letter and ask how it contributed to a document that was later ratified or adopted. This page follows 10 letters and writings, plus the most-quoted Federalist essays, from the words on the page to the document they helped produce.
Quotes were checked against Founders Online (National Archives) and the other sources linked under each one. Original spelling is kept (for example, "uncontroulable" and "fœderal").
The Bill of Rights chain: Anti-Federalists such as Brutus warn of an all-powerful national government (1787) → Jefferson writes Madison that "a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to" (December 1787) → Madison agrees, with conditions (October 1788) → Madison introduces amendments in the First Congress (June 1789) → the states ratify the Bill of Rights (1791).
The letters
Thoughts on Government April 1776
John Adams → Written for George Wythe and other colonial leaders
Context: Colonies were writing their first state constitutions. Adams's pamphlet advised them how to design a republic.
the very definition of a Republic, is “an Empire of Laws, and not of men.”John Adams, April 1776
I think a people cannot be long free, nor ever happy, whose government is in one Assembly.John Adams, April 1776
the judicial power ought to be distinct from both the legislative and executive, and independent upon both, that so it may be a check upon both, as both should be checks upon that.John Adams, April 1776
How it contributed: Adams argued for a two-house legislature, a separate executive, and an independent judiciary that check one another. He put these ideas into the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, which he drafted and which still uses the phrase "a government of laws and not of men."
Led to: Massachusetts Constitution (1780), and through it the U.S. Constitution's three branches
Context: John Adams was in the Continental Congress, which was moving toward independence.
I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors.Abigail Adams, March 31, 1776
Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands.Abigail Adams, March 31, 1776
How it contributed: She asked that the new code of laws protect women. John Adams replied, "Depend upon it, We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems." Her argument was not adopted in 1776; the 19th Amendment (1920) finally guaranteed women the vote.
Led to: A plea for women's rights realized much later in the 19th Amendment (1920)
Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments ca. June 20, 1785
James Madison → The Virginia General Assembly (a petition)
Context: Patrick Henry proposed a Virginia tax to support teachers of the Christian religion. Madison wrote this petition against it.
The Religion then of every man must be left to the conviction and conscience of every man; and it is the right of every man to exercise it as these may dictate.James Madison, ca. June 20, 1785
Who does not see that the same authority which can establish Christianity, in exclusion of all other Religions, may establish with the same ease any particular sect of Christians, in exclusion of all other Sects?James Madison, ca. June 20, 1785
How it contributed: The tax bill failed, and Virginia instead passed Jefferson's Statute for Religious Freedom (1786). Madison later drafted the religion clauses of the 1st Amendment.
Led to: Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) and the 1st Amendment's Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses (1791)
Letter on the crisis under the Articles of Confederation November 5, 1786
George Washington → James Madison
Context: Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of indebted farmers in western Massachusetts, alarmed Washington. The national government under the Articles had no power to respond.
What stronger evidence can be given of the want of energy in our governments than these disorders? If there exists not a power to check them, what security has a man of life, liberty, or property?George Washington, November 5, 1786
Thirteen Sovereignties pulling against each other, and all tugging at the fœderal head, will soon bring ruin on the whole;George Washington, November 5, 1786
We are fast verging to anarchy & confusion!George Washington, November 5, 1786
How it contributed: Washington's alarm, shared by Madison and others, helped build support for the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which Washington agreed to attend and was chosen to lead. The Constitution created a stronger national government with power to tax, regulate commerce, and keep order.
Led to: The U.S. Constitution (1787), replacing the Articles of Confederation
Letter on the proposed Constitution December 20, 1787
Thomas Jefferson → James Madison
Context: Jefferson was the American minister in Paris. He liked much of the new Constitution but objected that it had no bill of rights.
a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth, general or particular, and what no just government should refuse, or rest on inference.Thomas Jefferson, December 20, 1787
How it contributed: Jefferson listed the rights he wanted written down: freedom of religion, freedom of the press, protection against standing armies, and trial by jury. His letters helped persuade Madison to champion amendments in the First Congress.
Context: Madison answered Jefferson's push for a bill of rights. He had doubted that written lists of rights would stop majorities.
My own opinion has always been in favor of a bill of rights; provided it be so framed as not to imply powers not meant to be included in the enumeration.James Madison, October 17, 1788
Repeated violations of these parchment barriers have been committed by overbearing majorities in every State.James Madison, October 17, 1788
Wherever the real power in a Government lies, there is the danger of oppression.James Madison, October 17, 1788
How it contributed: Madison worried that listing some rights might imply others were not protected. His solution became the 9th Amendment: listing certain rights "shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." He introduced the amendments in the House on June 8, 1789.
Led to: The Bill of Rights, especially the 9th Amendment (1791)
Letter to the Hebrew Congregation in Newport August 18, 1790
George Washington → The Hebrew Congregation in Newport, Rhode Island
Context: Answering a welcome letter from the Jewish congregation during his visit to Newport, Washington described religious liberty as a right, not a favor granted by the government.
For happily the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens, in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.George Washington, August 18, 1790
All possess alike liberty of conscience and immunities of citizenshipGeorge Washington, August 18, 1790
How it contributed: Written while the Bill of Rights was being ratified, it expressed the religious-liberty principle the 1st Amendment would protect and Article VI's ban on religious tests for office.
Led to: The 1st Amendment's religion clauses (1791) and Article VI's ban on religious tests
Thomas Jefferson → The Danbury Baptist Association (Connecticut)
Context: Baptists in Connecticut, where Congregationalism was the established church, wrote to President Jefferson about their religious liberty.
thus building a wall of separation between Church & State.Thomas Jefferson, January 1, 1802
that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinionsThomas Jefferson, January 1, 1802
How it contributed: Jefferson described what the 1st Amendment's religion clauses meant. The Supreme Court later quoted his "wall of separation" in Reynolds v. United States (1879) and Everson v. Board of Education (1947) when interpreting the Establishment Clause.
Led to: How courts read the 1st Amendment's Establishment Clause
Speech on the final day of the Convention September 17, 1787
Benjamin Franklin → The Constitutional Convention (speech read by James Wilson)
Context: On the last day of the Convention, the 81-year-old Franklin urged every delegate to sign despite their doubts.
I consent, Sir, to this Constitution because I expect no better, and because I am not sure, that it is not the best.Benjamin Franklin, September 17, 1787
How it contributed: Franklin's appeal for compromise and unanimity helped win signatures; 39 delegates signed the Constitution that day and sent it to the states for ratification.
Led to: The signing of the U.S. Constitution (1787)
"Brutus" (probably Robert Yates of New York) → The citizens of the State of New York (newspaper essay)
Context: The leading Anti-Federalist essay warned that the proposed national government would swallow the states.
This government is to possess absolute and uncontroulable power, legislative, executive and judicial, with respect to every object to which it extends"Brutus" (probably Robert Yates of New York), October 18, 1787
How it contributed: Brutus pointed to the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Supremacy Clause as threats to the states and to liberty. Anti-Federalist pressure produced the Bill of Rights, and especially the 10th Amendment's reservation of powers to the states.
Led to: The Bill of Rights and the 10th Amendment (1791)
Essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in 1787-1788 to persuade New York to ratify the Constitution.
Federalist No. 10 1787
James Madison (as "Publius")
Liberty is to faction what air is to fireJames Madison, Federalist No. 10 (1787)
the CAUSES of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its EFFECTS.James Madison, Federalist No. 10 (1787)
Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizensJames Madison, Federalist No. 10 (1787)
Main idea: A large republic controls factions better than a small democracy. Principle:Individual rights.
The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny.James Madison, Federalist No. 47 (1788)
Main idea: Separation of powers, drawing on Montesquieu. Principle:Separation of powers.
Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.James Madison, Federalist No. 51 (1788)
If men were angels, no government would be necessary.James Madison, Federalist No. 51 (1788)
you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.James Madison, Federalist No. 51 (1788)
Main idea: Checks and balances and federalism ("a double security") protect liberty. Principle:Checks and balances.
the judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the ConstitutionAlexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78 (1788)
It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, but merely judgmentAlexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78 (1788)
The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts.Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78 (1788)
Main idea: Judicial review and life terms for judges; later reflected in Marbury v. Madison (1803). Principle:Judicial review.
For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 84 (1788)
bills of rights, in the sense and to the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed Constitution, but would even be dangerous.Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 84 (1788)
Main idea: A bill of rights was unnecessary and even dangerous; the concern Madison later answered with the 9th Amendment. Principle:Limited government.